Document (#30282)

Author

Yager, R.R.

Title

Knowledge trees and protoforms in question-answering systems

Source

Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology. 57(2006) no.4, S.550-563

Year

2006

Abstract

We point out that question-answering systems differ from other information-seeking applications, such as search engines, by having a deduction capability, an ability to answer questions by a synthesis of information residing in different parts of its knowledge base. This capability requires appropriate representation of various types of human knowledge, rules for locally manipulating this knowledge, and a framework for providing a global plan for appropriately mobilizing the information in the knowledge to address the question posed. In this article we suggest tools to provide these capabilities. We describe how the fuzzy set-based theory of approximate reasoning can aid in the process of representing knowledge. We discuss how protoforms can be used to aid in deduction and local manipulation of knowledge. The idea of a knowledge tree is introduced to provide a global framework for mobilizing the knowledge base in response to a query. We look at some types of commonsense and default knowledge. This requires us to address the complexity of the nonmonotonicity that these types of knowledge often display. We also briefly discuss the role that Dempster-Shafer structures can play in representing knowledge.

Footnote

Beitrag in einer Special Topic Section on Soft Approaches to Information Retrieval and Information Access on the Web

Similar documents (content)

1. Kelechukwu Ibenne, S.; Simeonova, B.; Harrison, J.; Hepworth, M.: ¬An integrated model highlighting information literacy and knowledge formation in information behaviour (2017) 0.14

   0.14068943 = sum of:
     0.14068943 = product of:
       0.50246227 = sum of:
         0.019034375 = weight(abstract_txt:information in 50) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.019034375 = score(doc=50,freq=10.0), product of:
             0.039814454 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.0029216 = boost
               2.4188995 = idf(docFreq=10748, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.478077 = fieldWeight in 50, product of:
               3.1622777 = tf(freq=10.0), with freq of:
                 10.0 = termFreq=10.0
               2.4188995 = idf(docFreq=10748, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=50)
         0.074335515 = weight(abstract_txt:appropriately in 50) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.074335515 = score(doc=50,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.14749326 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.1144794 = boost
               8.063882 = idf(docFreq=37, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.5039926 = fieldWeight in 50, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               8.063882 = idf(docFreq=37, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=50)
         0.026610645 = weight(abstract_txt:framework in 50) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.026610645 = score(doc=50,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.09368891 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.2561603 = boost
               4.5445113 = idf(docFreq=1282, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.28403196 = fieldWeight in 50, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               4.5445113 = idf(docFreq=1282, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=50)
         0.01368354 = weight(abstract_txt:this in 50) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.01368354 = score(doc=50,freq=3.0), product of:
             0.052531503 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.3302274 = boost
               2.4062347 = idf(docFreq=10885, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.26048255 = fieldWeight in 50, product of:
               1.7320508 = tf(freq=3.0), with freq of:
                 3.0 = termFreq=3.0
               2.4062347 = idf(docFreq=10885, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=50)
         0.050678387 = weight(abstract_txt:base in 50) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.050678387 = score(doc=50,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.14394607 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.5570439 = boost
               5.633042 = idf(docFreq=431, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.35206512 = fieldWeight in 50, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               5.633042 = idf(docFreq=431, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=50)
         0.090491146 = weight(abstract_txt:capability in 50) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.090491146 = score(doc=50,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.2118631 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.8889855 = boost
               6.8339334 = idf(docFreq=129, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.42712083 = fieldWeight in 50, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               6.8339334 = idf(docFreq=129, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=50)
         0.22762862 = weight(abstract_txt:knowledge in 50) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.22762862 = score(doc=50,freq=9.0), product of:
             0.34232512 = queryWeight, product of:
               5.8816066 = boost
               3.5463927 = idf(docFreq=3480, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.66494864 = fieldWeight in 50, product of:
               3.0 = tf(freq=9.0), with freq of:
                 9.0 = termFreq=9.0
               3.5463927 = idf(docFreq=3480, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=50)
       0.28 = coord(7/25)
   

2. Soergel, D.: Unleashing the power of data through organization : structure and connections for meaning, learning and discovery (2015) 0.13

   0.13341637 = sum of:
     0.13341637 = product of:
       0.47648704 = sum of:
         0.008512431 = weight(abstract_txt:information in 3376) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.008512431 = score(doc=3376,freq=2.0), product of:
             0.039814454 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.0029216 = boost
               2.4188995 = idf(docFreq=10748, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.21380253 = fieldWeight in 3376, product of:
               1.4142135 = tf(freq=2.0), with freq of:
                 2.0 = termFreq=2.0
               2.4188995 = idf(docFreq=10748, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=3376)
         0.007900195 = weight(abstract_txt:this in 3376) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.007900195 = score(doc=3376,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.052531503 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.3302274 = boost
               2.4062347 = idf(docFreq=10885, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.15038967 = fieldWeight in 3376, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               2.4062347 = idf(docFreq=10885, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=3376)
         0.045310892 = weight(abstract_txt:address in 3376) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.045310892 = score(doc=3376,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.13359381 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.5000099 = boost
               5.4267054 = idf(docFreq=530, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.33916909 = fieldWeight in 3376, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               5.4267054 = idf(docFreq=530, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=3376)
         0.057334505 = weight(abstract_txt:representing in 3376) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.057334505 = score(doc=3376,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.15628909 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.6224275 = boost
               5.869585 = idf(docFreq=340, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.36684906 = fieldWeight in 3376, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               5.869585 = idf(docFreq=340, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=3376)
         0.08296155 = weight(abstract_txt:answering in 3376) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.08296155 = score(doc=3376,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.1999413 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.8350682 = boost
               6.6388726 = idf(docFreq=157, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.41492954 = fieldWeight in 3376, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               6.6388726 = idf(docFreq=157, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=3376)
         0.059857164 = weight(abstract_txt:question in 3376) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.059857164 = score(doc=3376,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.18411638 = queryWeight, product of:
               2.1567152 = boost
               5.2016807 = idf(docFreq=664, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.32510504 = fieldWeight in 3376, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               5.2016807 = idf(docFreq=664, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=3376)
         0.21461032 = weight(abstract_txt:knowledge in 3376) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.21461032 = score(doc=3376,freq=8.0), product of:
             0.34232512 = queryWeight, product of:
               5.8816066 = boost
               3.5463927 = idf(docFreq=3480, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.62691957 = fieldWeight in 3376, product of:
               2.828427 = tf(freq=8.0), with freq of:
                 8.0 = termFreq=8.0
               3.5463927 = idf(docFreq=3480, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=3376)
       0.28 = coord(7/25)
   

3. Bishop, B.W.: Location-based questions and local knowledge (2011) 0.13

   0.1285068 = sum of:
     0.1285068 = product of:
       0.4589528 = sum of:
         0.006019198 = weight(abstract_txt:information in 633) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.006019198 = score(doc=633,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.039814454 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.0029216 = boost
               2.4188995 = idf(docFreq=10748, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.15118122 = fieldWeight in 633, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               2.4188995 = idf(docFreq=10748, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=633)
         0.01833593 = weight(abstract_txt:provide in 633) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.01833593 = score(doc=633,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.073089205 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.1095006 = boost
               4.013929 = idf(docFreq=2180, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.25087056 = fieldWeight in 633, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               4.013929 = idf(docFreq=2180, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=633)
         0.01580039 = weight(abstract_txt:this in 633) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.01580039 = score(doc=633,freq=4.0), product of:
             0.052531503 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.3302274 = boost
               2.4062347 = idf(docFreq=10885, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.30077934 = fieldWeight in 633, product of:
               2.0 = tf(freq=4.0), with freq of:
                 4.0 = termFreq=4.0
               2.4062347 = idf(docFreq=10885, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=633)
         0.11732535 = weight(abstract_txt:answering in 633) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.11732535 = score(doc=633,freq=2.0), product of:
             0.1999413 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.8350682 = boost
               6.6388726 = idf(docFreq=157, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.58679897 = fieldWeight in 633, product of:
               1.4142135 = tf(freq=2.0), with freq of:
                 2.0 = termFreq=2.0
               6.6388726 = idf(docFreq=157, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=633)
         0.090491146 = weight(abstract_txt:capability in 633) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.090491146 = score(doc=633,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.2118631 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.8889855 = boost
               6.8339334 = idf(docFreq=129, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.42712083 = fieldWeight in 633, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               6.8339334 = idf(docFreq=129, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=633)
         0.10367564 = weight(abstract_txt:question in 633) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.10367564 = score(doc=633,freq=3.0), product of:
             0.18411638 = queryWeight, product of:
               2.1567152 = boost
               5.2016807 = idf(docFreq=664, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.56309843 = fieldWeight in 633, product of:
               1.7320508 = tf(freq=3.0), with freq of:
                 3.0 = termFreq=3.0
               5.2016807 = idf(docFreq=664, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=633)
         0.10730516 = weight(abstract_txt:knowledge in 633) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.10730516 = score(doc=633,freq=2.0), product of:
             0.34232512 = queryWeight, product of:
               5.8816066 = boost
               3.5463927 = idf(docFreq=3480, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.31345978 = fieldWeight in 633, product of:
               1.4142135 = tf(freq=2.0), with freq of:
                 2.0 = termFreq=2.0
               3.5463927 = idf(docFreq=3480, maxDocs=44421)
               0.0625 = fieldNorm(doc=633)
       0.28 = coord(7/25)
   

4. Lee, M.; Mizoguchi, R.: Ontology models for supporting exploratory information needs (1998) 0.13

   0.12671508 = sum of:
     0.12671508 = product of:
       0.45255387 = sum of:
         0.022571992 = weight(abstract_txt:information in 1061) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.022571992 = score(doc=1061,freq=9.0), product of:
             0.039814454 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.0029216 = boost
               2.4188995 = idf(docFreq=10748, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.5669296 = fieldWeight in 1061, product of:
               3.0 = tf(freq=9.0), with freq of:
                 9.0 = termFreq=9.0
               2.4188995 = idf(docFreq=10748, maxDocs=44421)
               0.078125 = fieldNorm(doc=1061)
         0.009875244 = weight(abstract_txt:this in 1061) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.009875244 = score(doc=1061,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.052531503 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.3302274 = boost
               2.4062347 = idf(docFreq=10885, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.18798709 = fieldWeight in 1061, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               2.4062347 = idf(docFreq=10885, maxDocs=44421)
               0.078125 = fieldNorm(doc=1061)
         0.053867437 = weight(abstract_txt:discuss in 1061) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.053867437 = score(doc=1061,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.12919989 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.4751359 = boost
               5.3367167 = idf(docFreq=580, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.41693097 = fieldWeight in 1061, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               5.3367167 = idf(docFreq=580, maxDocs=44421)
               0.078125 = fieldNorm(doc=1061)
         0.07166813 = weight(abstract_txt:representing in 1061) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.07166813 = score(doc=1061,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.15628909 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.6224275 = boost
               5.869585 = idf(docFreq=340, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.45856133 = fieldWeight in 1061, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               5.869585 = idf(docFreq=340, maxDocs=44421)
               0.078125 = fieldNorm(doc=1061)
         0.047325693 = weight(abstract_txt:types in 1061) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.047325693 = score(doc=1061,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.13566662 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.8513268 = boost
               4.4651284 = idf(docFreq=1388, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.34883815 = fieldWeight in 1061, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               4.4651284 = idf(docFreq=1388, maxDocs=44421)
               0.078125 = fieldNorm(doc=1061)
         0.11311393 = weight(abstract_txt:capability in 1061) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.11311393 = score(doc=1061,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.2118631 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.8889855 = boost
               6.8339334 = idf(docFreq=129, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.53390104 = fieldWeight in 1061, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               6.8339334 = idf(docFreq=129, maxDocs=44421)
               0.078125 = fieldNorm(doc=1061)
         0.13413145 = weight(abstract_txt:knowledge in 1061) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.13413145 = score(doc=1061,freq=2.0), product of:
             0.34232512 = queryWeight, product of:
               5.8816066 = boost
               3.5463927 = idf(docFreq=3480, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.39182472 = fieldWeight in 1061, product of:
               1.4142135 = tf(freq=2.0), with freq of:
                 2.0 = termFreq=2.0
               3.5463927 = idf(docFreq=3480, maxDocs=44421)
               0.078125 = fieldNorm(doc=1061)
       0.28 = coord(7/25)
   

5. Burke, R.D.: Question answering from frequently asked question files : experiences with the FAQ Finder System (1997) 0.12

   0.12341237 = sum of:
     0.12341237 = product of:
       0.61706185 = sum of:
         0.010533596 = weight(abstract_txt:information in 2191) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.010533596 = score(doc=2191,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.039814454 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.0029216 = boost
               2.4188995 = idf(docFreq=10748, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.26456714 = fieldWeight in 2191, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               2.4188995 = idf(docFreq=10748, maxDocs=44421)
               0.109375 = fieldNorm(doc=2191)
         0.12542261 = weight(abstract_txt:base in 2191) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.12542261 = score(doc=2191,freq=2.0), product of:
             0.14394607 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.5570439 = boost
               5.633042 = idf(docFreq=431, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.8713167 = fieldWeight in 2191, product of:
               1.4142135 = tf(freq=2.0), with freq of:
                 2.0 = termFreq=2.0
               5.633042 = idf(docFreq=431, maxDocs=44421)
               0.109375 = fieldNorm(doc=2191)
         0.14518271 = weight(abstract_txt:answering in 2191) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.14518271 = score(doc=2191,freq=1.0), product of:
             0.1999413 = queryWeight, product of:
               1.8350682 = boost
               6.6388726 = idf(docFreq=157, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.7261267 = fieldWeight in 2191, product of:
               1.0 = tf(freq=1.0), with freq of:
                 1.0 = termFreq=1.0
               6.6388726 = idf(docFreq=157, maxDocs=44421)
               0.109375 = fieldNorm(doc=2191)
         0.14813893 = weight(abstract_txt:question in 2191) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.14813893 = score(doc=2191,freq=2.0), product of:
             0.18411638 = queryWeight, product of:
               2.1567152 = boost
               5.2016807 = idf(docFreq=664, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.8045939 = fieldWeight in 2191, product of:
               1.4142135 = tf(freq=2.0), with freq of:
                 2.0 = termFreq=2.0
               5.2016807 = idf(docFreq=664, maxDocs=44421)
               0.109375 = fieldNorm(doc=2191)
         0.18778402 = weight(abstract_txt:knowledge in 2191) [ClassicSimilarity], result of:
           0.18778402 = score(doc=2191,freq=2.0), product of:
             0.34232512 = queryWeight, product of:
               5.8816066 = boost
               3.5463927 = idf(docFreq=3480, maxDocs=44421)
               0.01641179 = queryNorm
             0.5485546 = fieldWeight in 2191, product of:
               1.4142135 = tf(freq=2.0), with freq of:
                 2.0 = termFreq=2.0
               3.5463927 = idf(docFreq=3480, maxDocs=44421)
               0.109375 = fieldNorm(doc=2191)
       0.2 = coord(5/25)